Explore the performance of copper vs. nickel in lithium battery packs, with real resistance tests, voltage drop data, and debunked layering myths.

Copper vs Nickel in Battery Packs: Real-World Comparison

Copper vs. Nickel in Battery Packs: Debunking Layering Myths with Real Tests

Learn how lithium battery chargers work, why CC-CV charging is essential, and how to safely build your own DIY charger. Includes expert safety tips and voltage/current guidelines.

Lithium Battery Charger Explained: How It Works + Build Your Own

Today nearly everything from electric vehicles to portable power stations relies on a lithium battery charger. At its core, a lithium charger isn’t much more than a power supply engineered to hold current steady as it feeds your cells, seamlessly shifting voltages to keep the charge flowing just right. Yet behind that simple definition lies a carefully orchestrated dance between AC transformation, DC conversion, and precise CC‑CV control—ensuring your pack fills safely, efficiently, and without overrun.In this article, we will take a look at exactly how lithium battery chargers work, why their constant‑current/constant‑voltage profile is non‑negotiable for lithium chemistries, and even how you can build your own lithium battery charger.&nbsp;<h2>What Is A Lithium Battery Charger?</h2> A lithium battery charger is essentially just a constant current power supply. A constant current power supply regulates current by changing the output voltage to whatever it needs to be to maintain the set level of current.&nbsp; Internally, a lithium battery charger consists of 2 main components- The AC side and the DC side. High voltage AC comes in and is transformed down to some intermediary voltage that is then rectified and filtered before being sent to a DC to DC converter. The DC side of a lithium battery charger is responsible for regulating current by dynamically adjusting its output voltage.&nbsp; <h2>Do You Have To Use A Lithium Battery Charger To Charge Lithium Ion Batteries?</h2>You don’t have to use an off‑the‑shelf lithium‑ion charger—you can build your own with a DC‑to‑DC converter. However, any charger (whether DIY or commercial) must still comply with the same charging rules: it needs to regulate both current and voltage precisely, following the CC‑CV (constant current–constant voltage) profile that lithium‑ion cells require. In essence, if your DC‑to‑DC converter is configured correctly to manage current and voltage limits, it is a lithium‑ion battery charger.There are also some special cases where a lead‑acid charger can work for certain lithium‑ion chemistries. You definitely cannot use a lead‑acid charger for NMC (nickel manganese cobalt) cells, the most common lithium‑ion chemistry, because their voltage range doesn’t match. However, with LFP (lithium iron phosphate) cells—which have a lower nominal voltage and lower maximum voltage—you can arrange four LFP cell groups in series to reach a 12 V pack. At that point, the pack’s voltage range nearly aligns with that of a standard 12 V lead‑acid battery, making a lead‑acid charger usable for charging LFP packs as long as the charger is current-limited.&nbsp;So, while you don’t strictly have to buy a lithium battery charger, whatever charging solution you use must adhere to the same fundamental requirements.<h2>Do You Need A Special Charger For Lithium Batteries?</h2>If by ‘special’ you mean able to regulate current and have an output range that covers the voltage range of the battery you are trying to charge, then yes, you need a special charger for lithium ion batteries.&nbsp; The things that make a lithium battery charger special are its ability to regulate current for the first charging phase, and then regulate current for the second charging phase. Don’t let the phases confuse you, because every bench power supply and constant current regulator does this automatically.&nbsp; All it means is that once that battery reaches the target charge voltage, the regulator will no longer regulate current, and the current will naturally fall off while the cell voltage remains constant. That's literally how a lithium battery charger works. <h2>How Can I Make My Own Lithium Battery Charger?&nbsp;</h2> Absolutely! Check out this standard <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Certified-54-6V-Electric-Charger-Battery/dp/B0DY4CYMDT">lithium battery charger</a>. It has a max charge voltage of 54.6V and a current limit of 2A. That means its designed for a 13S NMC Lithium ion battery.&nbsp;<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:333,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXetFPgRB0kcbQmeq4jpzxbiHWmT_3htWrjS5_6Ob9H6lxQFzg_KK9YxZppCVqtmXQkGcVbb0fS2NQAMegi1K7D0Q6eXzchxR1N3HPytpSf9Dn549ZGp6aWDvy3bqQLtGAPA_iDWaA?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXetFPgRB0kcbQmeq4jpzxbiHWmT_3htWrjS5_6Ob9H6lxQFzg_KK9YxZppCVqtmXQkGcVbb0fS2NQAMegi1K7D0Q6eXzchxR1N3HPytpSf9Dn549ZGp6aWDvy3bqQLtGAPA_iDWaA?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ" width="624" height="333"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> It's not difficult to make a charger that will work for any battery that the charger above will work for. In this case, all you would need would be a <a href="https://www.amazon.com/BOSYTRO-Switching-Universal-Transformers-Upgraded/dp/B0DJQG2JX3/">24V DC power supply </a>and this <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Converter-DROK-Numerical-Adjustable-Regulator/dp/B08PV5YY55">constant current boost converter</a>. Simply plug the&nbsp; <figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:411,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfAf08tkJaDVymzjCk1hgv4_2XmPfSZyJnztqnIzvyGgrKY3BE9MhE7QaYN-iI2tNSyUWtjFMuoQl35AJVWJ3nOGqZqI7KRkNlJw5Al5gK-IgjhYviXRDX6ywVZi15pFSHOaYod4g?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfAf08tkJaDVymzjCk1hgv4_2XmPfSZyJnztqnIzvyGgrKY3BE9MhE7QaYN-iI2tNSyUWtjFMuoQl35AJVWJ3nOGqZqI7KRkNlJw5Al5gK-IgjhYviXRDX6ywVZi15pFSHOaYod4g?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ" width="624" height="411"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> Simply attach the output of the power supply to the input of the boost converter. After that, set the output voltage and output voltage to 54.6 and the current to somewhere between 1 and 10 amps depending on the battery you are interested in charging.&nbsp; <h2>Do Lithium Battery Chargers Have Overcharge Protection?</h2>Not really, and I’ll explain why. Most batteries are bulk‑charged, meaning they do not have a balance connector—you only have the main positive and main negative connections. So that’s all the charger can “see” on most lithium‑ion batteries.Yes, the lithium battery charger is not going to go over 54.6 volts—that’s the highest it’s set to and can go. It can’t magically go higher than that. You might think this means it could never overcharge a cell. Well, what if you have 13 cell groups and 12 of them are at 3.5 volts while one is at 2 volts? The lithium battery charger will push current until the pack voltage reaches 54.6 volts total. It doesn’t care that one cell is at 6 volts and another at 2 volts (or one at 20 volts and another at 1 volt)—it simply can’t see individual cells.A BMS would detect that imbalance and disconnect charging, but that protection comes from the BMS, not the charger itself. In contrast, a balanced charger—which, in general, is much rarer because it requires access to each cell group via an external connector—is common in the RC world (airplanes, drones, etc.). That kind of lithium battery charger is able to monitor each cell group and provide true overcharge protection.Bulk chargers, which constitute roughly 90 % of all lithium‑ion battery chargers, lack this feature because they have no way to monitor individual cell groups. That’s one of the many reasons we rely on a BMS to handle overcharge protection.<h2>Can You Use A Lithium Battery Charger To Charge Two Batteries In Series?</h2> Yes but you shouldn't for the same reason you shouldn't discharge two lithium ion batteries in series. The MOSFETs inside a lithium battery BMS are rated for a particular voltage level. While they are on, they have a very low resistance, so the voltage across the MOSFET is very close to zero. But the moment the MOSFETs in one of the BMS turn off (such as when the BMS disconnects charging or discharging) the MOSFETs in the deactivated BMS will see the full voltage of the circuit. This almost always results in damaging the BMS and sometimes results in a fire.&nbsp; <figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:624,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXeVag00T7B4xlG1nvZ857eFnnMEehF_Q4MxBTZZnlEjsjNNVGGXTtRNv0oktCwz5kmW0vzZDksCHlqoeLF050n2BSd0xQGPMAK2JWWtf_Ky4jjFaxc9ngomtBpUEL9dAjqZFrp6?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXeVag00T7B4xlG1nvZ857eFnnMEehF_Q4MxBTZZnlEjsjNNVGGXTtRNv0oktCwz5kmW0vzZDksCHlqoeLF050n2BSd0xQGPMAK2JWWtf_Ky4jjFaxc9ngomtBpUEL9dAjqZFrp6?key=WW08iGCN9yygd_uBohI5oQ" width="624" height="624"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> At least in the case of discharging batteries in series, you can use them safely until one of them dies. So, in that situation, you just have to monitor the state of charge of the lowest capacity battery, which is arguably much easier to do than manually preventing a battery from reaching full charge.&nbsp; <h2>Conclusion</h2>Lithium battery chargers come in a variety of power levels and form factors and can range from absolutely no settings to full control over the current and voltage limits. At the end of the day, a lithium battery charger is a device that can supply a constant current charge phase followed by a constant voltage charge phase while regulating voltage and current to within set parameters.&nbsp; We hope this article helped you learn everything you needed to know about lithium battery chargers, thanks for reading!

How Lithium Battery Chargers Work: DIY Tips, CC-CV Basics & Safety Guide

Learn everything about 12V lithium-ion batteries—how to build them, the best chemistry (LFP vs NMC), safe charging practices, and when not to use them. Perfect for makers and engineers.

12V Lithium-Ion Battery Guide: Charging, Chemistry & Safety Explained

12 volts is arguably the most common system voltages for low cost electronics, small household appliances, and PC peripherals that aren't bus-powered. That means if you can build a 12v lithium ion battery, you can build a battery that can power literally millions of devices. But is it possible to build a 12v lithium ion battery? And really, when is a 12 volt battery, anyway?.&nbsp; In this article, we will cover the ins and outs (literally, we are going to talk about charge and discharge) 12v lithium ion batteries. We will cover how to build them, how to charge them, how to use them, and when not to use them. We’re also going to explain how not all 12v lithium ion batteries are created equally.&nbsp; <h2>What Is A 12V Battery?&nbsp;</h2> A 12V battery is a battery that has a nominal voltage close to 12 volts. When using NMC chemistry, the closest you can get is a 3S configuration that yields a nominal voltage of 11.1 volts. These kinds of batteries have a 12.6V maximum charging voltage, so that means they will power most 12V devices for most of its state of charge. I say most because NMC lithium ion cells have a dead voltage of around 2.8 volts.&nbsp; When cells are added in series, their voltages add. That means a 3S NMC lithium 12V battery will have a full charge voltage of 12.6V and a dead voltage of around 8.4V. This makes this type of 12V lithium ion battery unsuitable to power 12V devices during the bottom half of its discharge curve.&nbsp;<h2>What Is The Best Chemistry For A 12V Lithium Ion Battery?</h2> LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate) chemistry is the best chemistry for a 12V lithium ion battery. This is because of the slightly lower operational voltage range of LFP chemistry compared to NMC. While NMC has a dead voltage of around 2.8V and a full charge voltage of 4.2V, LFP has a dead voltage of about the same 2.8V mark, but a full charge voltage of just 3.65V That means instead of 3 cell groups in series, you can put 4 LFP cell groups in series to achieve a voltage range almost identical to a 12V lead acid battery.&nbsp; But wait, why do I want the voltage range of an older 12V battery? Wouldn’t it be better to leave the old standard behind and move forward? Well, probably. But the problem is, lead acid batteries were popular for a really long time. Because of this, millions and millions of devices were made to operate in that voltage range.&nbsp; <h2>What Is The Voltage Range Of a 12V Lead Acid Battery?</h2>A 12V lead acid battery has a voltage range of either 10.5V to 13.8V or 10.5V to 14.5V. While it's true that a 12V lead acid battery has a voltage range of around 10.5 volts to 14.5 volts, if a lead acid battery is going to be left on a charger for a long period of time, it’s best to lower the charge voltage to around 13.8V instead of 14.5V. Because of this fact, there are essentially two voltage ranges for a 12V lead acid battery.&nbsp; <h2>What Can You Run With A 12V Lithium Ion Battery?</h2>There are literally millions of devices that you can run with a 12v lithium ion battery. Inverters, Radios, Lights, Fans, and many more devices and small appliances will happily run on a 12V lithium ion battery. But it's important to note that not all 12V lithium ion batteries are made equally.&nbsp; In the case of a 12V lithium ion battery the chemistry chosen is very important. If it's an LFP 12V lithium ion battery and it already runs on a 12V lead acid battery, you can basically just swap out the lead acid 12V battery with the lithium one and you are good to go. If, however, you are replacing a 12V lead acid battery with a 12V NMC lithium ion battery, you are going to have to use a regulator or custom charger.&nbsp;<h2>Battery Management Systems (BMS) and Cell Balancing</h2>A robust BMS is the heart of a reliable 12 V lithium‑ion pack. It must monitor each cell’s voltage to prevent any cell from rising above its maximum or falling below its cutoff, and perform cell balancing to ensure uniform capacity across the pack. Passive balancing—bleeding off excess charge through resistors—is inexpensive but slow, whereas active balancing transfers charge between cells more efficiently and with less heat. The BMS should also include current sensing to cut off charging or discharging in over‑current scenarios, and ideally thermal monitoring (via built‑in temperature sensors) to shut the pack down if it overheats. Without a proper BMS, your pack is prone to cell imbalance, diminished capacity, and in the worst case, thermal runaway.<h2>Charging Strategies and Best Practices</h2>Proper charging extends battery lifespan and maintains safety. Use a CC/CV (constant‑current, constant‑voltage) charging profile: first apply a steady current until cells reach their maximum voltage, then hold that voltage and allow the current to taper off. Observe the correct cutoff voltages—4.2 V per cell (12.6 V total) for 3S NMC packs, and 3.65 V per cell (14.6 V total) for 4S LFP packs—and choose a charge rate between C/2 and 1C. Slower rates (C/5 or C/10) are gentler and promote longer life. Avoid float charging for lithium‑ion; instead cycle your pack between roughly 20 % and 80 % state of charge for daily use. Always charge within a safe temperature window (0 °C to 45 °C) to prevent lithium plating or electrolyte breakdown. Finally, use chargers specified for your exact chemistry and series count—a “12 V lithium charger” typically implies a 3‑cell NMC charger, so if you’re using a 4S LFP pack you’ll need an LFP‑compatible charger.<h2>Safety Considerations and Thermal Management</h2>Lithium‑ion packs can be very safe when properly managed. Ensure good ventilation and heat dissipation by using cases with airflow or integrating heat sinks for high‑current builds. Install a suitably rated fuse or circuit breaker on the pack’s main positive lead—sized just above your maximum expected load—to protect against short circuits and over‑current. Build your enclosure from fire‑retardant materials (UL 94‑rated plastics or metal with insulating barriers) and avoid cramming cells so tightly that they cannot dissipate heat. For high‑drain applications, consider phase‑change materials or thermal pads to further spread heat. Conduct regular inspections for signs of cell bulging, corrosion, or loose connections, and replace any suspect cells immediately. Never leave a charging pack unattended, and always place it on a non‑combustible surface.<h2>Maintenance, Lifespan, and Recycling</h2>To maximize cycle life and minimize environmental impact, practice good maintenance and recycling habits. Operate your pack within a moderate state‑of‑charge window (20 %–80 %) whenever possible—full 0 %–100 % cycles stress cells more and accelerate capacity fade. Expect an initial capacity loss of about 5 %–10 % over the first 100 cycles, then roughly 2 %–3 % per year thereafter. For long‑term storage, set your pack to about 40 %–50 % state of charge and keep it at a cool, stable temperature (15 °C–25 °C). When a cell’s capacity irreversibly drops below about 70 %–80 %, retire it to a certified lithium‑ion recycling facility—never dispose of cells in general waste. By adhering to proper charging, storage, and thermal management, you can achieve hundreds to thousands of useful cycles.<h2>When Not To Use A 12V Lithium‑Ion Battery</h2>Despite their many advantages, there are circumstances where a 12 V lithium‑ion pack may not be the optimal choice. For very low‑drain devices—such as small timers or sensors—a lead‑acid battery can be more cost‑effective and tolerate low trickle currents better. In freezing environments, charging below 0 °C is unsafe for lithium‑ion, so consider alternative chemistries if you need to charge in subzero conditions. If upfront budget is the primary concern, lead‑acid still offers lower cost per watt‑hour. For applications requiring a float voltage above 14 V, an LFP pack may never fully charge without a custom charging solution. Finally, during rapid prototyping with frequently changing load requirements, the simplicity and forgiving nature of lead‑acid may outweigh the weight and cycle‑life benefits of lithium‑ion.

The Ultimate Guide to 12V Lithium-Ion Batteries: Build, Charge, and Use

Upgrading your e‑bike battery? Discover the truth about amp-hours, controllers, wiring, and more with these 13 expert myth-busting insights.

E‑Bike Battery & Controller Myths Explained | Upgrade Smart

Upgrading your e‑bike, electric vehicle, or other battery powered device often raises questions—and plenty of myths—about whether you need to swap out other components, how batteries really behave, and what wiring practices matter. Below, we break down 13 common misconceptions about batteries, controllers, wiring, and pack construction, clarifying each point and adding a bit more detail to help you make informed decisions on your next upgrade. <h2>Do I Have To Upgrade My Speed Controller When I Upgrade My Battery?</h2> There are two reasons why you would need to upgrade your controller after upgrading your battery. A) If your new battery has a higher voltage than your original battery, you will more than likely (but not always) need a new controller to support the higher battery voltage. B) The new battery is the same voltage but supports a higher current level than the maximum current that the controller supports. In that case, you would want a higher current control to take full advantage of the new battery.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:624,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcyPpUelA6w5mXVvDxfg8pPnB9_jTMH1drUooUvDZTLvNNvLvzFu1a8jIvEG2Z3NqNPD4pxopQUpcYeNFcFSvdKKtnfcqh60O_mokFT6s-UgBR2uRj9VRMsIn1G0G1-MsYQ1Cj4VA?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcyPpUelA6w5mXVvDxfg8pPnB9_jTMH1drUooUvDZTLvNNvLvzFu1a8jIvEG2Z3NqNPD4pxopQUpcYeNFcFSvdKKtnfcqh60O_mokFT6s-UgBR2uRj9VRMsIn1G0G1-MsYQ1Cj4VA?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ" width="624" height="624"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> A lot of people out there think that if you have a 48 V 10 Ah battery and you upgrade to a 48 V 20 Ah battery, you will have to swap out the controller, motor or other components. This actually is not the case, though. Remember, the current rating on a battery is simply how much power it can support before overheating and the amp‑hour rating simply indicates how long the battery can deliver current and has nothing to do with the amount of current it can deliver. Even when your existing controller is electrically compatible, keep an eye on its thermal limits. A battery with higher available energy can sustain high‑current draws longer, so your controller’s heatsink, firmware current‑cut settings, and even your vehicle’s airflow may need reevaluation. In some setups, simply adding active cooling or revising the controller’s current‑limit profile is enough to safely harness the extra capacity without a full controller swap. <h2>Amp‑Hour Rating Equals Maximum Current Delivery</h2> Closely related to the first misconception is the idea that a higher Ah rating somehow forces more current through the load. In fact, the battery will only provide as much current as the load draws. The battery’s maximum current rating (in amps) merely sets an upper limit—it won’t “push” more current into your motor than the controller requests. A higher current capability simply means the battery will run cooler and sag less under load, possibly allowing a bit more sustained power, but it won’t change how much current the motor actually pulls. When assessing battery performance, also consider C‑rate: the ratio of discharge current to Ah capacity. A battery rated at 2 C can safely deliver twice its Ah rating in amps. So a “bigger” Ah battery built with lower‑C cells might actually have a lower peak discharge capability than a smaller Ah battery built for high‑C output, underscoring why capacity alone doesn’t dictate peak power. <h2>You Should Never Connect Positive to Negative</h2> &nbsp;Under normal circumstances, connecting the positive and negative terminals of a single battery (or power supply) is a short circuit and must be avoided. However, when wiring multiple batteries or power supplies in series—for higher voltage—you do connect the positive of one unit to the negative of the next. That series connection is exactly what creates the increased total voltage.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:375,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXch6fIEKqsNm7dkyGRIvmUoeauJlTzBbxqER64SvO_7SKS_EbMo0YPYXDLb2caSN5pFy2IqBVfL5WcZaFXE7udDwtX2z8Pc-MbXgXjVrhQlQfk_UPlj5r5ARxLrVp-Gy7lVq8vKIg?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXch6fIEKqsNm7dkyGRIvmUoeauJlTzBbxqER64SvO_7SKS_EbMo0YPYXDLb2caSN5pFy2IqBVfL5WcZaFXE7udDwtX2z8Pc-MbXgXjVrhQlQfk_UPlj5r5ARxLrVp-Gy7lVq8vKIg?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ" width="624" height="375"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> In complex battery arrays—say, a bank of four 12 V lead‑acid batteries wired for 48 V—mixing up series and parallel connections can lead to uneven discharge, cell imbalance, and even thermal runaway. Always double check your configuration: series adds voltages, parallel adds capacities, but never tie positives or negatives across different series strings unless they’re properly balanced with a BMS. <h2>Fuses Must Always Go on the “Hot” (Positive) Side</h2> &nbsp;Because we talk about “hot” (positive) and “ground” (negative), many people insist the fuse must sit on the positive side. In truth, a fuse simply interrupts the circuit, and breaking the circuit on either conductor will stop current flow. Placing a fuse on the negative side is perfectly safe—and often preferable—because if it blows and you handle the fuse holder, you’re touching ground potential rather than the potentially “live” positive side. In automotive and marine contexts, however, chassis grounds can carry return currents from multiple circuits. Putting the fuse on the negative side in such systems risks blowing unrelated circuits if a return path is inadvertently shared. Always consider the overall grounding scheme before choosing fuse placement. <h2>More Power Runs Through the Positive Wire Than the Negative</h2>&nbsp;Some assume that the positive conductor carries more current or power than the negative (ground) conductor. But it’s a circuit—a closed loop—so the same current flows through every part of that loop. Wherever you break the loop, you interrupt the flow equally. The only time different conductors might see different currents is in multi‑wire systems with shared grounds or split supplies. For example, in a dual‑supply op‑amp circuit with +15 V and –15 V rails, the ground path may carry the sum of both supplies’ return currents. But in a simple battery‑powered motor circuit, positive and negative wires always match in current. <h2>Lead‑Acid Batteries Drain Faster on Concrete</h2>&nbsp;“Don’t rest your car battery on the concrete floor—it will drain faster!” This old adage stems from the fact that lead‑acid batteries self‑discharge at a noticeable rate, and garages tend to be concrete‑floored. People would set a battery on the ground, come back weeks later, see a lower voltage, and blame the concrete. In reality, it’s the battery’s intrinsic self‑discharge, not the floor material.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:468,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXemnq6WsO_LcFVsjHnhn53uWYc8TsNi1qOuBymU6iy--orW_5gklcwDh3aqcWQbPq6rj7GsP4SAUuub_4NVYuIw34XNog44d_FMfitY4i_NZLeqhAdL51Xi_3t8Fgcz2z2zWJpmaw?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXemnq6WsO_LcFVsjHnhn53uWYc8TsNi1qOuBymU6iy--orW_5gklcwDh3aqcWQbPq6rj7GsP4SAUuub_4NVYuIw34XNog44d_FMfitY4i_NZLeqhAdL51Xi_3t8Fgcz2z2zWJpmaw?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ" width="624" height="468"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure>Cold temperatures in uninsulated garages can accelerate self‑discharge and plate sulfation in lead‑acid cells. If anything, concrete floors usually stay cooler than wooden shelves, so any voltage drop is more about temperature effects on chemistry than electrical leakage through the slab. <h2>Conductors Too Close Together Will Spark or Arc</h2> &nbsp;Wires or copper traces on a circuit board must be a minimum distance apart, right? Not unless you’re dealing with really high voltages. In air, it takes around 1 kV (1,000 V) per millimeter to create an arc. Since few people are designing thousand‑volt battery packs, the small gaps between low‑voltage conductors won’t spontaneously spark. &nbsp;Extra detail: That said, in high‑humidity or polluted environments, surface leakage across insulating materials can become significant at much lower voltages. If you’re exposed to salt spray, fuel vapors, or condensation, creepage paths on PCBs or terminal blocks can develop unintended conduction, so maintain cleanliness and appropriate conformal coatings. <h2>48 V × 20 A = 960 W</h2> &nbsp;It’s tempting to multiply battery voltage by maximum controller current to get a theoretical wattage (e.g., 48 V × 20 A = 960 W) and call that the motor’s power. In practice there are significant efficiency losses—in the battery’s internal resistance, wiring, controller electronics, and motor—easily amounting to hundreds of watts. Real‑world power output is always lower than the simple voltage‑times‑current calculation. Actual delivered power also depends on motor load characteristics and duty cycle. A motor spinning freely under no load might draw only 10 A, while climbing a steep grade could push the controller to its 20 A limit. Monitoring real‑time voltage and current with a wattmeter gives the most accurate picture of system performance under your actual riding conditions. <h2>Adding Nickel to Copper Conductors Increases Resistance</h2>&nbsp;Nickel is added between copper bars and cells in many battery packs, and some believe this reduces resistance. In fact, nickel is far less conductive than copper. The thin nickel foil used for spot welding adds only a tiny incremental resistance along its thickness axis—so small it’s effectively negligible. Across the plane of a busbar (in parallel paths), adding more conductor (nickel or otherwise) will lower overall resistance simply by providing more parallel pathways, but copper is always the superior choice if current is high. Many high‑end packs combine copper and nickel: copper for the main bus and nickel for intercell welds. This hybrid approach balances weldability and conductivity. If you rely solely on nickel for heavy current paths, you’ll see heat‑related voltage drops under sustained high load, so reserve nickel for spot conduction points and use copper for bulk distribution. <h2>Hexagonal or Offset Cell Layouts Are Always More Compact</h2> &nbsp;A staggered, honeycomb‑style cell layout can pack cells tightly in three or more rows, creating a near‑rectangular envelope. But with only two rows of cells, the offset just produces a wider pack—there’s no real space‑saving benefit. Offset layouts only shine when you have at least three rows to interlock.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:256,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcTqRIGLwTCtjP8OmMkcdiAfjKhiOYsTy53isdFRRIM1PF8-VM4BTckt2mgK8yt9jmmg_0et693cnXPsAr1jraRCtauDmlR7BsqSRSMliebFdTGUT9WY8NztohXf2UI8qfAoRjU5Q?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcTqRIGLwTCtjP8OmMkcdiAfjKhiOYsTy53isdFRRIM1PF8-VM4BTckt2mgK8yt9jmmg_0et693cnXPsAr1jraRCtauDmlR7BsqSRSMliebFdTGUT9WY8NztohXf2UI8qfAoRjU5Q?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ" width="624" height="256"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure> Offset layouts also complicate thermal management and wiring. Interlocking cells share heat more uniformly, but routing series leads and BMS taps becomes more intricate. For most DIY packs, simple inline or block arrangements with ample cell‑to‑cell spacing for cooling and easy tap access are more practical. <figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:241,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfP3ESHfvL_XXkVsGUHZ2Hef7ySbZyfnK-nZpedc3G2zGfdQum_k6Xq7t--73wPTYZ4LCwaVpHDhl8Zw7aOVn8ERt2Xyr4wd77MLbnR6birVbQje6F70VKYO7f5KMGY-HTBAABxXg?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:624}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfP3ESHfvL_XXkVsGUHZ2Hef7ySbZyfnK-nZpedc3G2zGfdQum_k6Xq7t--73wPTYZ4LCwaVpHDhl8Zw7aOVn8ERt2Xyr4wd77MLbnR6birVbQje6F70VKYO7f5KMGY-HTBAABxXg?key=DUPIhyKcIuH8iUUg_8gjrQ" width="624" height="241"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure><h2>Nickel‑Based Battery Packs Are Always Low Quality</h2> &nbsp;It’s often said that if your pack uses nickel strips and not pure copper busbars, it must be “cheap” or substandard. While that is probably true most of the time, what actually matters is the amount of conductor and its capacity relative to the load current and pack geometry. A well‑designed nickel strip pack (with multiple parallel layers or sufficiently wide strips) can perform just as well as copper—especially at modest currents or with cells in parallel to share the load. Quality depends on conductor sizing and layout, not the metal’s name alone. The reliability of a nickel‑based pack also hinges on weld integrity. Poor spot welds, inconsistent weld depth, or insufficient dwell time can create high‑resistance joints. If you choose nickel strips, invest in a quality spot welder and follow best practices for weld parameters to ensure each connection carries full rated current. <h2>Capacity and Current Carrying Capacity Are Not Linked</h2>&nbsp;You hear this all the time. “I have a 48 V 20 Ah battery, and I just upgraded to a 48 V 30 Ah battery, it should be able to handle 50% more current, right? Wrong. This only happens to be the case if the batteries are, in all other ways, equal. So, that means battery A is a 13S4P made with 5 Ah cells and battery B is a 13S6P made with the same 5 Ah cells. In a situation like that, that theory is true because the higher capacity has 50% more of the same type of cells, so yes, as long as the BMS supports it, the battery would have 50% more current carrying capacity than battery A.The problem is, this is rarely ever the case. More often than not, two mismatched batteries are also mismatched in other ways. Meaning that they have different cells, and the layout and series conductors are more than likely totally different. In this much more common scenario, the load current would be disproportionately distributed between the two mismatched batteries. This is something to account for when putting lithium ion batteries in parallel. When paralleling entire battery packs, always match their internal impedance as closely as possible. Even small differences in cell chemistry or conductor thickness can cause one pack to shoulder more load, leading to accelerated wear. Using a professional‑grade parallel balancing board or individual cell monitors helps prevent one pack from “hogging” current and ensures uniform aging. <h2>They Say the End Cells Need Double the Connections as Most of the Power Runs Through Them</h2> Some builders believe that the cells at the ends of a series string bear more current than the middle ones and thus require extra tabs. In reality, current flows equally through every cell in a series string—each cell experiences the same amp flow. However, using copper or thicker tabs on end cells can reduce resistance marginally in the interconnects and balance mechanical stresses.If you do choose thicker end‑cell connections, ensure that the added mechanical rigidity doesn’t warp cell casings or stress the weld joints. A flexible mechanical support or silicone potting can absorb vibrations and thermal expansion, preserving integrity across all tabs—end or middle. <h2>Conclusion</h2> Understanding how batteries, controllers, wiring, and pack layouts interact is key to safe, efficient upgrades. Most myths stem from oversimplified thinking—like equating amp‑hours to peak current or overemphasizing tab placement. By focusing on real parameters (voltage compatibility, current ratings, conductor sizing, and thermal management) rather than hearsay, you’ll get the performance you expect without unnecessary component swaps or wiring headaches.Always verify specs, follow best practices for connections and fusing, and consider cell chemistry and layout as a whole system. With those fundamentals in mind, you can confidently optimize your powertrain for range, efficiency, and longevity.We hope this article helped clear up any battery misconceptions&nbsp; you may have had. Thanks for reading!

13 Common Myths About E‑Bike Batteries, Controllers & Wiring—Busted!

Can you use batteries that have been in storage for a really long time? Lets find out!

Do Batteries Really Expire?

Do batteries expire? This seems like an obvious question—much more obvious if you ask whether sour cream or milk expires, because you can’t use them after their expiration dates. But batteries are different. You can still use some batteries after they “expire,” yet not all. I’ll get into why.<h2>Alkaline Batteries</h2>Your standard alkaline AA, AAA, C, D and 9 V batteries have a shelf life of about five to ten years, which is really long. But those batteries definitely expire: after so many years, the unavoidable 2–3 % per year self-discharge inevitably leads to a dead alkaline battery. The thing is, you cannot recharge them.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;alk.jpg&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:162717,&quot;height&quot;:1200,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/uN0CUEqP8YMiFSBdTId5AQ99p0XfoRWMYsqKJEVx.jpg&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/uN0CUEqP8YMiFSBdTId5AQ99p0XfoRWMYsqKJEVx.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1058}" data-trix-content-type="image/jpeg" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Standard Alkaline AA Bateries&quot;,&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--jpg"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/uN0CUEqP8YMiFSBdTId5AQ99p0XfoRWMYsqKJEVx.jpg"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/uN0CUEqP8YMiFSBdTId5AQ99p0XfoRWMYsqKJEVx.jpg" width="1058" height="1200"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">Standard Alkaline AA Bateries</figcaption></a></figure>Think about that: you have a battery sitting on the shelf, charged at a certain level, and it’s always going down—2–3 % per year, every year, forever. Technically, it can never reach 0 %, but it will very quickly reach a percentage so low that the voltage is below nominal and won’t power anything you put it in—other than maybe a remote control. Everyone knows that trick:<ol><li>You need a AA for your device, but the batteries are dead.</li><li>You take the “dead” batteries from your remote control and put them in your device.</li><li>You put fresh batteries in the remote, and it’ll last for another year.</li></ol>Other than powering remote controls (which we can all agree isn’t important in an emergency), alkaline batteries are useless after a certain time. But that time span is rather long.<h2>Lithium Primary Batteries</h2>Next on the list are lithium primary batteries. These are like a hybrid between non-rechargeable alkalines and fully rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. They use lithium, so they have a higher voltage and very low self-discharge—about 1 % per year. They’re chemically stable but not rechargeable. Yes, these batteries also “expire” because once their voltage falls too low, you can no longer use them.<h2>Zinc Carbon Batteries</h2>Zinc carbon batteries are still in production today. The only reason they haven’t been replaced by alkaline, lithium-ion, or lead-acid batteries is their stunningly low manufacturing cost. In developing countries—where shipping produced alkaline batteries can be expensive—these can be locally manufactured using simple processes and easily sourced materials. However, they have a very high self-discharge (up to 5 % per year) and are not rechargeable. So these batteries definitely expire.<h2>Lithium-Ion Rechargeable Batteries</h2>This brings us to the most ubiquitous, most popular, most commonly used type of battery: the lithium-ion rechargeable battery. It has the shortest shelf life of all the battery types mentioned—two to three years—due to its 2–5 % self-discharge per month. Unlike other batteries, lithium-ion cells require a Battery Management System (BMS), which is an active electronic device that draws power from the cells it protects.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;lithium.jpg&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:10667,&quot;height&quot;:678,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/7wG5qJiP3uL08unuUJYZk0N4uv0ec8cLAWeGWutK.jpg&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/7wG5qJiP3uL08unuUJYZk0N4uv0ec8cLAWeGWutK.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1024}" data-trix-content-type="image/jpeg" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;An 18650 Lithium Ion battery cell&quot;,&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--jpg"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/7wG5qJiP3uL08unuUJYZk0N4uv0ec8cLAWeGWutK.jpg"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/7wG5qJiP3uL08unuUJYZk0N4uv0ec8cLAWeGWutK.jpg" width="1024" height="678"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">An 18650 Lithium Ion battery cell</figcaption></a></figure>Good news: even though lithium-ion batteries self-discharge faster and die on the shelf quicker than other types, you can recharge them. The recharging process itself is almost 100 % efficient (about 99.9 %), with minor losses only if you charge too fast: the cells’ internal resistance produces heat. You’ll also lose energy converting current via a constant-current buck or boost converter, which are 90–95 % efficient. But the key point is—they’re rechargeable.<h2>Preparing for Emergency Power</h2>Ultimately, you need a mixture of two battery types if you’re preparing for a power outage or disaster scenario:<ol><li>Lithium-ion batteries—because they’re rechargeable. Even if there’s no grid power, you can use solar panels or a generator (on fuel or vegetable oil) to produce energy and then store it.</li><li>Alkaline batteries—because, if fully charged and shelved for years, they still retain most of their charge due to low self-discharge. In six years, they might still be at ~80 % charge, ready when you need them.</li></ol>When you go to use lithium-ion batteries after years on the shelf, they’ll be dead—you’ll need to recharge them first. And that takes time and infrastructure. Alkalines, on the other hand, deliver immediate power (until they hit end-of-life).<h2>Can You Use 10 Year Old Batteries?</h2>Yes, but with some caveats. In 10 years, AA, AAA, C, and D alkaline cells will have lost around half of their capacity, and the voltage will seriously sag under load, but they will probably work. Primary lithium cells like CR2032 will be able to retain most of their charge and maintain a relatively steady voltage after a decade, so they’ll usually still work in things like CMOS backup or calculators (though it’s wise to check their voltage), but dont expect them to work for long at that point. Rechargeable lithium-ion packs, however, age out in 3–5 years; at ten years they’ve lost most capacity and a lot of their current carrying capability, but they will still work for low current applications or in a massively parallel configuration.&nbsp;<h2>Battery “End of Life”</h2>Eventually, even rechargeable cells break down, regardless of cycle count. But it takes a very long time. And even at “end of life” (when they can only store ~80 % of original capacity), lithium-ion batteries are still useful. Their voltage may drop more under load, but most devices include voltage regulators, so they keep working.So yes—lithium-ion batteries can expire, but “expiration” simply means you no longer get the manufacturer-rated capacity. They’ll probably keep working beyond that point.

Do Batteries Expire?

Lets explore the ins and outs of constant voltage regulators. 

What Exactly Is A Voltage Regulator?

&nbsp;A voltage regulator is a device that stabilizes a system’s voltage under varying load conditions. For example, the DC output from an alternator can fluctuate between 13 V and 15 V, but to charge a car battery you need a steady voltage. The regulator—either built into the alternator or installed separately—ensures that the battery sees a constant charging voltage.Similarly, when converting AC to DC, you typically use a transformer to step the AC voltage down, then a bridge rectifier to produce DC. That raw DC is often very “choppy,” and while capacitors help smooth it out, sensitive electronics generally require a more precise regulation stage.Voltage regulators are also used not merely to clean up a noisy supply but to convert one voltage level to another. The most common use is stepping down a higher voltage to a lower one suitable for loads.<h2>Linear vs. Switch-Mode Regulators</h2><figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:556,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://grangeramp.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/products-7812.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:451}" data-trix-content-type="image" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Linear Voltage Regulator&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://grangeramp.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/products-7812.jpg" width="451" height="556"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">Linear Voltage Regulator</figcaption></figure>&nbsp;Voltage regulators fall into two main categories: linear regulators and switch-mode converters (buck for step-down, boost for step-up). Linear regulators work by dissipating the excess voltage as heat. If the voltage drop is large and the current significant, the regulator can overheat—even with hefty heat sinks and fans—because the package itself can’t shed enough power.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:835,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://a.pololu-files.com/picture/0J5851.1200.jpg?d7ecfd2d1dd922f537ce44c02e13305b&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1200}" data-trix-content-type="image" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Small switch mode voltage regulator&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://a.pololu-files.com/picture/0J5851.1200.jpg?d7ecfd2d1dd922f537ce44c02e13305b" width="1200" height="835"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">Small switch mode voltage regulator</figcaption></figure>By contrast, switch-mode regulators rapidly switch their pass element on and off, controlling the duty cycle to maintain a steady output. This approach can reach efficiencies of up to 95 %, allowing both step-down and step-up operation with minimal heat generation. For example, a switch-mode converter can take a 24 V supply and efficiently produce 12 V at several amps, provided the module supports the required current.<h2>LM2596 DC-to-DC Buck Converter Modules</h2>&nbsp;One of the most ubiquitous low-cost switch-mode regulators is based on the LM2596 chip. These DC-to-DC buck modules are often sold in multi-packs—for instance, seven modules for around $13 with free shipping. Each typically supports up to 35 V input and advertises a 1.25 V–30 V adjustable output at 3 A.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;image.png&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:907700,&quot;height&quot;:912,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/cNdOnpcfRsGsJZpWCKOBG6vViyit9g2b9XtLhuiL.png&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/cNdOnpcfRsGsJZpWCKOBG6vViyit9g2b9XtLhuiL.png&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1200}" data-trix-content-type="image/png" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Mini LM2596 Buck Converter&quot;,&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--png"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/cNdOnpcfRsGsJZpWCKOBG6vViyit9g2b9XtLhuiL.png"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/cNdOnpcfRsGsJZpWCKOBG6vViyit9g2b9XtLhuiL.png" width="1200" height="912"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">Mini LM2596 Buck Converter</figcaption></a></figure>In practice, however, you won’t reliably draw 3 A continuously without additional cooling. At currents above 1.5 A they tend to get quite hot, and you’d need a good copper heat sink, thermal compound, and possibly a fan. With minimal heatsinking you can expect about 1–1.5 A continuous, or brief peaks of 3–4 A for a second or two. These modules work well to power small loads—such as LED strips—where about 10 W of output (at 12 V × 0.8 A) is sufficient. <h2>LM2596S Modules with Display</h2> &nbsp;A variation on the classic LM2596 module adds an integrated digital display so you can monitor the output voltage in real time. While a pack of two such boards cost around $8, the larger PCB area helps dissipate heat more effectively, giving roughly 10–20 % higher current capacity without extra cooling. Pick up your <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Converter-Step-Down-Regulator-Voltmeter-Compatible/dp/B089KBS5XR/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">Voltage Regulator with Display </a>today on Amazon.&nbsp;<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;image.png&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:1988546,&quot;height&quot;:1180,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/qc8QeOlPJQ8t1ioxnRQhIu3jufSvtDn2ZDJkdU0i.png&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/qc8QeOlPJQ8t1ioxnRQhIu3jufSvtDn2ZDJkdU0i.png&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1492}" data-trix-content-type="image/png" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;LM2596S Module With Display&quot;,&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--png"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/qc8QeOlPJQ8t1ioxnRQhIu3jufSvtDn2ZDJkdU0i.png"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/qc8QeOlPJQ8t1ioxnRQhIu3jufSvtDn2ZDJkdU0i.png" width="1492" height="1180"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">LM2596S Module With Display</figcaption></a></figure>The display makes voltage trimming more convenient, but if you don’t need to read back voltage and want the smallest, cheapest solution, the plain modules remain appealing.<h2>20 A / 300 W Constant-Current Buck Converter</h2>&nbsp;Although marketed as a constant-current module, setting the current knob fully clockwise converts it into a robust constant-voltage regulator. These boards include heat sinks on the power stages and handle 6 V–40 V inputs. You can draw 10 A continuously (with a fan), and up to 16–17 A near their limits. True 20 A output requires replacing the thermal film with quality paste, larger heat sinks, and active cooling.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1492,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/718AzM4bXsL._AC_SL1500_.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500}" data-trix-content-type="image" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;\&quot;20A\&quot; Constant Current Buck Converter&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/718AzM4bXsL._AC_SL1500_.jpg" width="1500" height="1492"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">"20A" Constant Current Buck Converter</figcaption></figure>With proper cooling, you can power several hundred watts of DC equipment: from 12 V inverters to laptop DC-barrel devices. For instance, you could buck a 4 S Li-ion battery down to 13–14 V to drive a small pure-sine inverter, or drop 24 V to around 19.5 V to run a laptop directly, bypassing its internal AC-DC stage. You can get this awesome <a href="https://www.amazon.com/WWZMDiB-Converter-Adjustable-Regulator-Protection/dp/B0B825HRB9/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">constant current buck converter </a>on Amazon.<h2>USB Charge Modules&nbsp; 5 V Regulators</h2>These small red USB charge boards may look like simple phone chargers, but electrically they’re just 5 V switch-mode regulators. These typically support up to 3 A output (practically 2.4–2.8 A with a good cable) from inputs up to 24 V. They don’t implement USB PD or Quick Charge protocols, but they’re ideal for powering ESP32s, Arduinos, fans, or even charging phones at the baseline 15 W USB-PD rate.You can buy five of these modules for under $10, making them cost-effective to stock for any project requiring a basic 5 V supply. Their simplicity and low price mean you can solder one in wherever you need a USB power port. Pickup your <a href="https://www.amazon.com/HiLetgo-DC-DC-Module-Charger-Arduino/dp/B01HXU1C6U/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">5 pack of USB charge modules </a>on Amazon today!<h2>Conclusion</h2>Voltage regulators come in all shapes and sizes: the LM2596 DC-DC buck modules offer adjustable 1.25 V–30 V outputs at around 1–1.5 A for small loads; the LM2596S variants with digital displays add real-time voltage readout and larger PCBs for 10–20 % more continuous current without extra cooling; the beefy 20 A/300 W constant-current buck converter doubles as a high-power constant-voltage supply—10 A continuous (up to 16–17 A peaks) with proper heatsinking; and the compact 5 V USB charge modules deliver a baseline 15 W (≈2.5 A) from inputs up to 24 V, making them perfect—and practically disposable—for any USB-powered project.We hope this article helped you learn everything you needed to know about voltage regulators, thanks for reading!

What Is A Voltage Regulator?

Explore the top USB PD modules for every need: compact 65W board, 18W battery bank charger, and 100W high-power bidirectional USB PD module

Best USB PD Modules: Compact, Low, and High Power Picks

USB PD a.k.a USB Power Delivery is extremely versatile. It's used to charge phones, run laptops, power soldering irons, turn motors, and spin fans. Because of this level of flexibility, there's not one single 'best' USB PD module that covers every application perfectly. Instead, we can break choices down into three main categories:<ol><li>Best Bang for the Buck (Cheap/Small Module)</li><li>Best Low Power Battery Bank Module</li><li>Best High Power Battery Bank Module</li></ol>This way, we can cover all the bases so you can find the best USB PD module for your specific application.&nbsp;<h2>Best Bang for the Buck: Tiny USB PD Module</h2><h3>Module Overview</h3>These compact boards are barely wider or longer than a USB A port, yet they support almost the entire USB PD specification: 5 V, 9 V, 12 V, and 20 V at up to 3 A each. They also support PPS (Programmable Power Supply), though few devices currently use this feature. Efficiency ranges from 92 % to 97 %, and the module handles USB PD negotiation on both the input and output sides.<h3>Voltage Input and Output</h3>The module accepts a DC input up to 35 V. Your maximum selectable output voltage depends on the input:<ul><li>12V in → outputs 5V or 9V</li><li>21V in → outputs 5V, 9V, 12V, and 20V</li><li>8.4V in → outputs only 5V</li><li>16.8V in → outputs 5V, 9V, and 12V</li><li>18.1V in → outputs 5V, 9V, and 12V</li></ul>In general, you must supply slightly more voltage than the highest output you need. If you use this module to drive a USB PD trigger board, it handles all voltage selection automatically.<h3>Performance and Protection</h3><ul><li>Power: Capable of 65 W output (3 A × 20 V), though it runs hot at maximum load. Consider a small heatsink or fan for continuous high-current use.</li><li>Safety: Built-in over-temperature, over-current, and short-circuit protection. However, it lacks reverse-polarity detection—connecting input backward will damage the module.</li><li>Quiescent Current: ~3 mA when idle.</li><li>Output Ripple: ~200 mV, which is acceptable for devices with internal regulators (e.g., battery chargers). For sensitive lab experiments, extra filtering may be needed.</li></ul><h3>Mechanical Integration</h3>You can solder a male XT60 connector directly to the board—no wires required—for a compact, low-current connection (few amps). Wrap with 2:1 or 3:1 heat shrink for a neat finish.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1452,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/71uPwiPhNyL._AC_SL1500_.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/71uPwiPhNyL._AC_SL1500_.jpg" width="1500" height="1452"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure>While some listings claim a 30 V input limit, the module uses 35 V-rated capacitors. In practice, inputs of 32–33 V pose no issues, though we typically operate them between 24 V and 29 V for reliability. It's literally insane that you can get <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Charging-Module-Interface-Supports-Charger/dp/B0DMSXXR9Q/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">5 of these modules for 11 dollars on Amazon.</a> Honestly, out of all 4 modules that we are going to cover in the article, this is my favorite one. Its definitely the one that I use the most.&nbsp;<h2>Best USB PD Battery Bank Module (Low Power)</h2>This IP5328P board is, hands down, the best low power battery bank module you can get. It supports 18 W fast charging and has 3 ports, one of which is a bidirectional C port that can be used to either power a USB C device or charge the battery bank itself.<h3>Mechanical Design &amp; Form Factor</h3><figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1050,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/61vWEIcRUkL._SL1050_.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1050}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/61vWEIcRUkL._SL1050_.jpg" width="1050" height="1050"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure>It’s the perfect width for an 18650 battery bank with no overhang and sits nicely centered on a 21700-based frame with minimal “bezel.” That makes it easy to fit this thing into compact designs without adding unnecessary bulk to the battery pack.<h3>Input Voltage &amp; Boost Conversion</h3>The best part about this USB PD module is its staggeringly low input voltage requirement. This thing can take a 3 V to 4.2 V input and step it up to either 5 V, 9 V, or 12 V, depending on what the device you plug into it needs.<h3>Output Current Specifications</h3><ul><li>5 V output: up to 3.1 A</li><li>7 V output: up to 2.4 A</li><li>9 V output: up to 2.0 A</li><li>12 V output: up to 1.5 A</li></ul><h3>Safety &amp; Thermal Management</h3>The controller on the board supports over-current, short-circuit, over-voltage, and over-temperature protection. In fact, it actively scales back its boost-stage current as its internal temperature rises, ensuring the die never exceeds its specified thermal limits.<h3>Thermal Behavior &amp; Operational Notes</h3>This is both a good thing and a bad thing. It means that it won’t ever burn up, but it also means that if you run this thing at peak output for extended periods of time, the output voltage could lower to the next lowest level to keep the heat down. Most of the time, you won’t even notice this, but if you are using a USB PD trigger to get a 12 V output out of this board and use that to power a 15 W or more load, after some time it will drop to 9 V unless you supply some cooling.But to be totally honest, that’s not even worth mentioning. Under normal operation, you won’t have the slightest bit of trouble out of this board. It’s only if you are using external equipment (a USB PD trigger) to squeeze the absolute maximum power out of this board that you’ll see any kind of problem— and even in that case, it scales down accordingly. This fantastic <a href="https://www.amazon.com/HiLetgo-IP5328P-Battery-Bi-Directional-Charging/dp/B0CDWWYQTC/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">USB PD Battery Bank Module</a> can be purchased on Amazon for the amazingly low price of $13 for two.&nbsp;<h2>Best USB PD Battery Bank Module (High Power)</h2>This high‑power USB Power Delivery (USB‑PD) battery‑bank board uses the IP2368 chipset and delivers up to 100 W of fast charging in both directions. Unlike 1 S‑only modules, it can work with 2 S, 3 S, 4 S, 5 S, or 6 S packs.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1051,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/71lKSqhzowL._AC_SL1500_.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500}" data-trix-content-type="image" class="attachment attachment--preview"><img src="https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/71lKSqhzowL._AC_SL1500_.jpg" width="1500" height="1051"><figcaption class="attachment__caption"></figcaption></figure><h3>2. Default Configuration &amp; BMS</h3>The board leaves the factory set for 4 S operation. Although you will notice several extra connections on the PCB, there is no built‑in BMS — you must add one that matches the cell count. Changing a few resistors lets you switch the board to 2 S, 3 S, 5 S, or 6 S.<h3>3. Bidirectional Boost‑Buck Conversion</h3>The IP2368 is a bidirectional boost‑buck controller:<ul><li>Charging: A 5 V USB input is boosted to the correct voltage to charge, for example, a 4 S pack (up to 16.8 V).</li><li>Discharging: The same circuitry bucks or boosts the battery voltage to any supported USB‑PD rail.</li></ul><h3>Supported USB‑PD Voltages</h3>No matter where the battery sits — around 12 V when low to 16 V when full for a 4 S pack — the board can always output 5 V, 9 V, 12 V, 15 V, or 20 V.&nbsp;<h3>Thermal Performance</h3>A lot of power can flow through this board, and the chips get super‑hot when pushed:<ul><li>Discharge: Typical loads (phones, tablets, USB soldering irons) draw 20–60 W intermittently, so temperatures stay modest.</li><li>Charge: Continuous fast charging can drive the ICs to ~85 °C in open air. Adding a heat‑sink is highly recommended.</li></ul>Configuring the board for 5 S or 6 S reduces current for the same wattage, so it runs cooler. I usually reconfigure these boards for 6 S and pair them with a 6 S BMS. You get the same power with lower current and less heat.&nbsp; These boards are very, very good — despite their excruciatingly hot operation under full load, I have yet to see one fail. But they do run very, VERY hot. Honestly, the best thing to do would be to wire up a tiny 24V to the&nbsp; + on the PCB.&nbsp;<h3>Extra Pads on the PCB</h3>Those extra pads are not for BMS wiring. One pad, marked with a plus sign (+), mirrors whatever USB‑PD mode is active: it shows 5 V until a device negotiates 9 V, 12 V, 15 V, or 20 V, and then the pad follows that voltage. You could attach a small meter here to verify the current PD profile — pretty cool! This thing runs hot, so why not attach a super low power 24V fan to that pin? When operating in 20V mode, it will spin slower than it was rated for, but still fast enough to effectively cool. That will also be true at 15V and 12V. By the time when get to a voltage that the fun will either run very slowly or not at all, we've *also* reached a voltage that simply won't let us output all that much power, rendering the situation unable to get so hot in the first place.&nbsp;Overall, this is the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Teyleten-Robot-Bidirectional-Buck-Boost-High-Power/dp/B0B7RT7CF4/&amp;tag=cellsavior08-20">best high power USB PD battery bank board</a> you can get on Amazon right now.&nbsp;<h2>A Note About The Listings</h2>As you can see below, there are a lot of errors in these Amazon listings. Its a pretty common problem and is a combination of lack of technical expertise on the part of the listers and poorly translated Chinese.&nbsp;<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;image.png&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:742165,&quot;height&quot;:1108,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/BUIfORTfvxT2z3bqAxAoiyZXvU8hb86vOIGdc7Fd.png&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/BUIfORTfvxT2z3bqAxAoiyZXvU8hb86vOIGdc7Fd.png&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:2019}" data-trix-content-type="image/png" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--png"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/BUIfORTfvxT2z3bqAxAoiyZXvU8hb86vOIGdc7Fd.png"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/BUIfORTfvxT2z3bqAxAoiyZXvU8hb86vOIGdc7Fd.png" width="2019" height="1108"><figcaption class="attachment__caption">image.png 724.77 KB</figcaption></a></figure>We end up in a situation where the listings themselves are rather confusing. I have no idea what 'reach' means in context of 'Specification Met' but that is mostly a benign one, as most people would chock that up to a poor translation. But the one above that is more serious. 17 volts DC? Why would that even be there. Its a battery interface on one side, and a USB PD module on the other. Neither of those sides use 17 volts as any of the voltages for any of the standards that they support.&nbsp;So, if you aren't familiar with USB PD, it can be really confusing, and you may end up buying something that cannot at all do what you need it do to do. &nbsp;<h2>So, What's The Best USB PD Module?&nbsp;</h2> If you need an ultra-compact, cost-effective USB-PD module for up to 65 W output with full PD negotiation and PPS support, the tiny 65W PD module is hard to beat; It can run on just about any low voltage battery, but it can't charge the battery that its running on. For that, you would need a USB Power Bank PD module. For low-power applications, the IP5328P module offers 18 W bidirectional charging and robust protection in a perfect form factor; and for high-power (up to 100 W both ways) multi-cell packs (2 S–6 S), the IP2368-based board provides seamless boost-buck operation across all standard PD voltages.We hope this articled helped you learn everything you wanted to know about USB PD Modules. Thanks for reading!

The Best USB PD Module

Learn how long lithium-ion batteries last, including NMC vs LFP cycles, temperature effects, EV tips, and how to extend battery life for years

How Long Do Lithium Ion Batteries Last? Full Guide

How Long Does A Lithium Ion Battery Last

Discover how LFP batteries became the top EV choice—safer, longer-lasting, and now just $115/kWh. Explore their evolution, innovations, and global impact.

The Rise of LFP Batteries: History, Cost & EV Dominance

LFP batteries have become the dominant battery in global EV production and have recently sharply fallen in price to a stunningly low $115/kwh.&nbsp;<h2>What Makes A Given Battery A Given Chemistry?</h2>Like other batteries, lithium-ion batteries have two electrodes, a cathode and an anode. The anode, which is the positive end in these batteries, is generally just graphite—nothing too special there. The cathode is where all the magic happens: that’s where the chemistry lives. It’s also the most expensive part of the battery, making up about 70% of the total value, and it’s the main distinguishing factor between different types of batteries.Two Main Categories: Ternary vs. LFPThere are two main categories of lithium-ion batteries: ternary batteries (made of three elements) and LFP batteries. Ternary batteries mix three different chemicals—either nickel, manganese, cobalt (NMC) or nickel, cobalt, aluminum (NCA)—in varying ratios. These batteries offer the highest energy density but use rare materials, making them more expensive. They’re also sourced from geopolitically tense regions and, due to their high energy density, have a greater risk of thermal runaway.LFP batteries use two different chemicals on the cathode—iron and phosphorus.&nbsp; There’s no nickel or cobalt, and iron and phosphorus are far more common worldwide. This makes LFP batteries much cheaper to produce and gives them a major advantage in cycle life: while NMC batteries retain about 80% of their capacity after 500–800 cycles, LFP batteries can exceed 2,000 cycles without significant degradation. If you’re looking to squeeze even more longevity out of your cells, check out our guide on <a href="https://cellsaviors.com/blog/get-more-cycles-from-lithium-ion-cells">How To Get More Cycles Out Of Lithium Ion Cells</a>.&nbsp;<h2>What Is The Downside Of An LFP Battery?</h2>&nbsp;The big drawback of LFP batteries is their lower energy density—around 90–150 Wh/kg compared to 260–300 Wh/kg for NMC and NCA. Two same-sized batteries, one LFP and one ternary, will store more energy if they use ternary chemistry. However, innovations in LFP chemistry, cell design, and pack integration have begun to narrow this gap. For a side-by-side comparison of these chemistries, see our full breakdown in <a href="https://cellsaviors.com/blog/lifepo4-nmc-chemistry-comparison">NMC&nbsp;Vs. LifePO4 Which Is Best</a>. It’s also important to remember that each chemistry (NMC, NCA, LTO, LFP) has many variations, and pack-level choices can significantly affect performance.&nbsp;<h2>Who Invented LFP Batteries?&nbsp;</h2>John B. Goodenough—yes, that’s his real name—first proposed and patented iron phosphate as a lithium-ion cathode material in the mid-1980s. His LFP chemistry promised better safety and cycle life but suffered from low electrical conductivity and poor energy density (around 90 Wh/kg), limiting its early appeal for electric vehicles.<h2>Why Are LFP Batteries So Cheap Now?</h2>The remarkable affordability of LFP batteries today is the result of many years of advances in materials science, strategic patent licensing and consolidation, and targeted policy incentives that drove early large‐scale adoption. By pooling and licensing key conductivity-enhancing patents, deploying subsidies to jump-start fleet electrification, and then allowing market forces to favor LFP’s inherent safety and longevity as subsidy support for higher-density chemistries waned, manufacturers achieved the economies of scale necessary to push prices sharply downward.Conductivity Boosts and Patent PoolsIn the 2000s, Canadian and European companies formed institutions to develop carbon-coating processes and related patents to enhance LFP conductivity. These patents were consolidated into a Swiss licensing consortium. In the 2010s, Chinese battery firms secured royalty-free domestic rights to these key LFP patents, whereas others worldwide had to pay licensing fees. Initially, Chinese firms could only use these patents domestically. China’s TVTC Policy and Early Adoption In 2009, China launched the TVTC policy (Thousands of Vehicles, Tens of Cities), a subsidy program encouraging local governments to deploy buses, taxis, and government vehicles equipped with LFP batteries. BYD then introduced LFP packs in its eBus and early hybrids, establishing domestic leadership. Outside China, most OEMs still preferred NMC or NCA for their higher energy density. Shifting Subsidies and Market Share Between 2016 and 2019, China shifted subsidies to favor EVs based on performance metrics (charge rate, range), prompting OEMs to chase higher-energy-density ternary chemistries. LFP’s share of new installations in China dropped from about 70% to 30% by mid-2019. Then, mid-2019, China halved its cash subsidies and continued annual cuts, narrowing the cost gap between ternary and LFP batteries. With subsidies rolling back, market forces favored LFP for its safety, cycle life, and lower cost—provided sufficient pack volume could compensate for lower energy density.<h2>Blade Cells and Cell-to-Pack Innovation</h2>In March 2020, BYD unveiled its Blade cells: ultra-thin prismatic LFP modules that eliminate intermediate modules in pack assembly. Traditional EV packs require cells → modules → packs; skipping the module step increases energy density at the pack level. BYD’s Blade-equipped Han EV achieves a 605 km range—about 85% of NMC density—while offering lower cost, better cycle life, and improved safety. Other Chinese OEMs swiftly adopted cell-to-pack (CTP) LFP technology, and by 2021 LFP pack volumes in China overtook NMC. By 2023, LFP accounted for 70% of EV installations in China.<figure data-trix-attachment="{&quot;contentType&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;filename&quot;:&quot;image.png&quot;,&quot;filesize&quot;:1466471,&quot;height&quot;:1080,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/tau610n5FSkNiyI6qwh9zZQe6CaZLfE3opwqh4hT.png&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/tau610n5FSkNiyI6qwh9zZQe6CaZLfE3opwqh4hT.png&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1920}" data-trix-content-type="image/png" data-trix-attributes="{&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;BYD Blade Cells&quot;,&quot;presentation&quot;:&quot;gallery&quot;}" class="attachment attachment--preview attachment--png"><a href="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/tau610n5FSkNiyI6qwh9zZQe6CaZLfE3opwqh4hT.png"><img src="https://admin.cellsaviors.com/storage/tau610n5FSkNiyI6qwh9zZQe6CaZLfE3opwqh4hT.png" width="1920" height="1080"><figcaption class="attachment__caption attachment__caption--edited">BYD Blade Cells</figcaption></a></figure><h2>Patent Expiry, Raw Materials, and Price Declines</h2>By 2022, core LFP patents began to expire, but China’s industrial base and supply-chain expertise were already dominant. New lithium sources in Australia, Chile, and Argentina came online, and by 2024 iron-ore prices fell ~15% due to a Chinese steel slowdown. LFP pack prices dropped another 20% to around US $115/kWh—making Chinese LFP packs the cheapest globally, even after import tariffs of 25–120%. In 2021, BYD began selling Blade batteries to Toyota, Ford, and others, sparking a price war among battery suppliers.<h2>Stationary Storage and Emerging Chemistries</h2>LFP’s cost and safety advantages have fueled a boom in grid-scale and home energy storage. Its lower energy density matters less for stationary applications. Innovations continue: adding manganese to create LMFP (a ternary lithium-iron-based cathode) boosts energy density, and novel two-step firing processes improve particle uniformity and conductivity.<h2>Conclusion</h2>LFP cell costs are destined to continue declining, and energy density gains may soon challenge NMC’s dominance. What began as an American-engineered, safe but low-energy chemistry has—through Chinese licensing, policy, and technological innovation—become one of the world’s lowest-cost and most promising lithium-ion battery technologies. We hope this article helped you learn more about LFP chemistry and lithium ion batteries in general. Thanks for reading!

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